Wild Animal News

Despite the recent death of the only free-ranging male, authorities in India plan to continue with the Indian cheetah project. According to the India Express there has been enough success for the ambitious project to continue.

The plan behind Project Cheetah is to return African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to central India. The fleet cats were once common in India. They were eliminated from India in the 1950’s The primary goal is to create a stable cheetah population. A secondary hope is that the cats will cause important and favorable changes in the region’s ecosystem.

When wolves were returned to Yellowstone National Park, for example the canines made important changes in the park. Their presence impacted the numbers and behaviors of many animals and birds and and even changed the balance of flora in the park. Something similar may occur in India if the project succeeds.

The project is two years old and backers feel they have learned enough to continue with the ambitious effort. Recent problems have, however, caused severe criticism.

It was feared the recent death of the sole free-ranging male might doom the project.

Javan was found dead, possibly from suspected drowning. Since cheetahs rarely drown the actual cause of death was not immediately known.

As envisioned the Indian cheetah project involved transplanting cheetahs from Namibia (and Suth Africa) to India. The transplanted cats were to be acclimated to life in India and then released. But many of the transplanted cats have died. The others are in captive isolation and may not be released into the wild.

India has had a number of conservation successes, including Project Tiger, which helped bring that regal cat back from the brink of extinction. The potential failure of Project Cheetah has brought out critical response.

“Dr Ravi Chellam, a wildlife biologist and conservation scientist, believes that India’s cheetah endeavor has reached a conservation dead end, with little hope for revival.

When asked if the multimillion dollar cheetah project could be salvaged, Chellam’s response was blunt: “Not really, because we’ve put the cart before the horse.”

“We should have first prepared a sufficient extent of suitable habitat and then brought the cats. Instead, the cats have been here in India for nearly two years, and we are still preparing small fragments of habitat, fencing these areas, and focusing on captive breeding,” he said.

Indian conservationists appear ready to press on with the Indian chetah project and learn from mistakes.

Pavan’s life and death echoes that of P-22. P-22 was the famous Los Angeles mountain lion (Puma concolor) whose exploits pushed development of the Liberty Canyon overcrossing. He succumbed to old age, chronic disease and the results of a car strike. He was one of over 100 of the big cats who have studied by the National Park Service.

“Dr Laurie Marker, one of the world’s foremost cheetah experts, said the recent death marks a significant setback for the Indian cheetah project.

“[Pavan’s death is] very sad. He had been out for nearly two years, showing how well wild cheetahs can live,” Marker told This Week in Asia.

“Reintroduction is a very, very hard process. We need many cheetahs to re-establish an extinct population. The process is not easy. We will celebrate Pavan’s life for helping his species regain territory in India. I ask all of India to honour him and what he stands for,” Marker said.” Marker is executive director of theCheetah Conservation Fund.

The Project Cheetah setback has to be viewed against the risks facing cheetahs world wide. There are about 7,000 thought to be alive now, the majority in Africa. Asiatic cheetahs survive in Iran in a complex political situation. They may number as few as 30 and as many as 100. The Iranian Cheetah Society is seeking to protect the and help them recover.

Perhaps taking a leaf from the Liberty Canyon wildlife corridor, India is considering wildlife corridors for four national parks. According to The Tribune, the suggestion for Indian wildlife corridors comes from a consortium of Indian conservation agencies.

Indian wildlife corridors in national parks would follow a relatively new conservation precedent. Conservationists recognize that isolated pockets of wildlife risk inbreeding and eventual local extinction. In California an ambitious corridor is being built over the 101 Freeway in Southern California. The Liberty Canyon overcrossing may open next year. It is expected to allow isolated pockets of mountain lions (Puma concolor) and other animals to overcross the freeway safely. It is hoped the animals can increase genetic diversity by mating across human made boundaries.

According to the Telegraph: “Environmentalists have suggested the creation of wildlife corridors in four national parks and sanctuaries in Himachal for safeguarding wildlife habitats during development activities. These are the suggestions made on the basis of a pilot study.

These are the suggestions made on the basis of a pilot study on Mapping and Restoration of Biodiversity Corridors in Himachal undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. The study suggests that wildlife corridors be developed in the Kanwar Wildlife Sanctuary, Inderkilla and Khirganga national parks and the Dhauladhar Wildlife Sanctuary.

It basically reflects on the reasons for rising man-animal conflicts in Himachal Pradesh and highlights the need for the creation of wildlife corridors. It also highlights the importance of ensuring wildlife movement pathways during the development process, including the construction of roads, railway lines, tunnels and industrialisation, which could prove to be a daunting task.”

. Liberty Canyon is one of a number of corridor projects in California. CalTrans, the state highway agency, is committed to reducing the risk to wildlife posed by highways. Worldwide, highways are extremely dangerous to wild animals. In the United States an estimated 1.5 million deer/vehicle accidents occur. There are about 10,000 injuries, some fatal. The price tag runs around $10 billion.

Indian wildlife corridors may help protect animals as large as elephants from the carnage.

Ocelots (leopardus pardalis) were once a common feature of the Texan landscape. But a number of threats including car strikes, urbanization and habitat loss have sharply reduced their numbers. Texas ocelots may now number fewer than 100. Texas A&M University is seeking to change that.

According to the Corpus Christi Caller-Times the school’s Kingsville campus has broken ground on a new research center designed to help the beleaguered cats.

The university says the 30,000 square foot center will take a year to complete and cost around $20 million. Research on Texas ocelots will be its primary focus, but it will be able be able to handle ocelot veterinary needs. It will also provide outreach and education. It is not expected to be open to the public. Texas A&M has several ocelot study efforts ongoing.

Like many cats ocelots can be quite common in some areas and facing local extinction in others.

According to Britannica:

“Frequently maintained in captivity, the ocelot is one of the most commonly seen of the spotted cats. However, because they have long been hunted for their skins, they can be rare in many areas. In fact, the ocelot population is declining throughout most of its range, and one scrubland subspecies, the Texas ocelot (F. p. albescens), is endangered. The hunting of ocelots and the trading of their pelts are prohibited in the United States and most other countries in the animal’s range.” (links in original.)

The margay and the oncilla closely resemble the ocelot in general appearance and range, but the ocelot is larger and has a tail that is shorter than its hind leg. Until recently, these cats were all considered members of the same genus as domestic cats (Felis). DNA studies now indicate that these cats and some other New World species are of a different lineage within the cat family, Felidae.” (Links in original)

Britannica said the cats are significantly larger than house cats and other small wild South American cats. They can weigh 35 pounds, stand 18 inches high and achieve a 3 foot length . Mostly nocturnal, they eat rodents, birds, fish insects and reptiles.

Approaching the Texas ocelots problem from a different direction is Recover Texas Ocelots. That organization is hoping to capture male ocelots and harvest sperm to be used in captive breeding and re-wilding efforts. Ocelots are not prolific. A female gives birth to a litter (usually 1 to three offspring) every two years.

India is wrestling with conservation issues for numerous wildlife species. Recently, the country has had a setback with an ambitious attempt to reintroduce cheetahs to India. Gujarat, India has now stepped into the limelight with a regional conservation plan aimed at India’s threatened caracals (Caracal caracal).

According to the Hindustan Times , Gujarat intends a captive breeding program aimed at increasing the numbers of the feline predator. Gujarat is a state along the western coast of the country. It covers more than 75 thousand square miles. It has a population of about 60 million.

Gujarat, India has experience with last-ditch conservation. The state is the last home of the Asiatic lions, a subspecies of Panthera leo leo. Gujarat has increased the number of Gir lions to over 600. Most of these lions live in the Gir forest Conservation success has raised the possibility of returning some lions to other parts of India.

Caracals live in the Middle East, Africa, Central Asia and India. They are severely threatened in parts of their range and perhaps abundant in others. There does not appear to be an agreed estimate in their numbers. India is one of the areas where they are threatened and they may be down to 50 individuals. Pakistan and India are two of the areas with the fewest of the felines. They are abundant in much of Africa, although they face challenges in South Africa.

Caracals are known for their distinctive appearance and their leaping ability. According to Britannica:

“The caracal is a sleek short-haired cat with a reddish brown coat and long tufts of black hairs on the tips of its pointed ears. Long-legged and short-tailed, it stands 40–45 cm (16–18 inches) tall at the shoulder and varies from 66 to 76 cm (about 26 to 30 inches) in length excluding its 20–25-cm (7.9–9.8-inch) tail. The swift caracal is generally solitary and nocturnal in habit. It preys on birds and mammals, such as gazelles, hares, and peafowl. In Asia it has been trained as a hunting animal. The female bears litters of one to four young, which resemble the adults. Although the caracal is classified as a species of least concern worldwide by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), it is considered threatened or endangered in North Africa, Turkey, Central Asia, and India.”

The Hindustan Times said the center will be located in a good habitat.

“The Chadva Rakhal area, where the centre will be located, is home to a rich variety of wildlife, including leopards, crocodiles, Indian gazelle, desert foxes, jackals, 28 species of mammals, 28 species of reptiles, and 242 species of birds. It also boasts 243 species of plants. The former royal family of Kutch has transferred 4,900 hectares of land in the Chadva Rakhal region to the state government, which has since been transferred to the Forest Department to support the conservation effort”

Chadva Rakhal is a forest much of which is privately held by former Indian royalty. 4,900 hectares is over 13,000 acres.

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are one of America’s two species of lynx. They are found all over the United States except for Alaska, Delaware and Hawaii. They are of least concern for extinction. Some live in Southern Canada and there is a population in Mexico. Now, Indiana bobcats are expected to be the subject of proposed hunting and trapping quotas, according to media reports.

According to the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR):

“Bobcats have been reported from almost every Indiana county but are most common in southern and west-central Indiana. A study conducted by the DNR in south-central Indiana revealed that bobcats are capable of dispersing up to 100 miles from where they were born. 

The DNR collects reports of bobcat sightings, trail-camera photos, and mortalities. Bobcat reports are also collected through the annual Archer’s Index, in which volunteer deer bow hunters report the number of hours they hunted and the species they saw while hunting.

Bobcats prefer forested areas that have brushy areas, fields, or clear cuts that are beginning to regrow mixed in. Female bobcat home ranges may vary from 6–12 square miles, and male bobcat home ranges may vary from 30–75 square miles. Bobcats are primarily nocturnal.”

The plan has not been formalized or approved and there is some opposition.

According to the Humane Society of the United States:

” a small but powerful group of recreational fur trappers helped push a bill through the state legislature that forces the Indiana Department of Natural Resources to establish a bobcat-trapping season by July 2025. And last week, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources proposed that trappers be allowed to kill 250 of them using horrific methods including strangling neck snares and steel-jawed leghold traps, even though these small wildcats are only starting to return to their native habitats in Indiana’s woods. But there is hope: concerned residents of the state still have time to prevent even one bobcat from being killed.

The new law mandating a bobcat season allows the Department of Natural Resources flexibility in setting the quota of bobcats that can be legally killed—the agency can even set this number as low as zero. 

The Natural Resources Commission will take public comments into account before making its final decision, and they can still decide to set the quota to zero. For that to happen, though, the Commission needs to hear from Indiana residents now. The public comment period for Indiana residents is open and can be accessed by clicking “Submit Comment Here” under Bobcat Amendments at NRC: Rulemaking Docket.“

Estimates of Indiana bobcats numbers vary. The cats have been seen in nearly every county in the state and the number of Indiana bobcats may be over 1,000. That number appears to be increasing.

The number of bobcats nationwide appears to be increasing and the number may be over 3 million. They are small enough to feed on insects and big enough to tackle young (and rarely adult) deer. They face challenges in some areas. Pythons in Florida have eliminated up to 90 percent of small to midsize mammals in some areas. California has perhaps 100,000 of the cats. In the Santa Monica Mountains they face threats from traffic and poisons working up the food chain. California has recently opted to start a conservation study of the status of the cats in the Golden State.

As we have noted cat genetic studies have changed the understanding of feline relation ships and changed the way we understand this mammal family. For example where once there were thought to be five types of tigers, now there are two. Mainland, tigers (Panthera tigris) and island tigers (Panthera tigris sondaica). But DNA studies have also helped to identify entirely new feline species including the clouded tiger cat.

The clouded tiger cat is set to join two other tiger cats, the northern and the southern. All three are members of the Leopardus tigrinis lineage. Very little separates them in appearance from the other two small cats. They are frequently known as oncillas and live in South America,

According to the website MenaFn the new cat is a small cat in isolated parts of Central America. It strongly resembles other small wild cats in the region but is distinct enough to be declared a separate species. According to the website:

“The Middle East North Africa Financial Network, Inc. (MENAFN) is the leading provider of online and wireless financial content and financial technology platforms to leading institutions and consumers around the

Arab world. MENAFN was founded in June 2000 by a team of serial entrepreneurs with successful track records in the region. The company is a Delaware-based corporation with a wholly owned subsidiary in Amman, Jordan and a fully paid-up capital of $2 million.”

MenaFn also serves as a news platform.

According to Mongabay:

“Until 2024 only two species of tiger cats were officially recognized: the southern tiger cat found in the Atlantic Forest of South America, and the northern tiger cat with a massive range stretching from Brazil through Colombia, north to Costa Rica and across the Andes into Bolivia and Peru.

But now there is evidence that tiger cats should be spilt into three separate species. Researchers analyzed characteristics of all the tiger cats known, including their morphology (body shape) and ecology (how they interact with their environment). In addition to differences in coat pattern, the clouded tiger cat has only one pair of teats while the other species have two pairs. The researchers concluded that tiger cat populations living in the Andes mountains and cloud forests of countries such as Colombia, Peru and Costa Rica are a separate species.””

Species are often distinguished by reproductive factors. Often they won’t mate or are unable to mate. If they do mate there is either sterility in the offspring or another health issue.

Sub species occur when a population of animals shows genetic or other variations. These variations are not enough to declare a separate species. This is the case with the Corsican cat-fox. This animal superficially resembles a fox but is actually a wildcat (Felix Sylvestris}

A new name has not been decided for the cat as some question whether it is distinct. The French Office of Biodiversity is certain, however. The cat will probably be protected as it is restricted to a part of Corsica. Meanwhile, the clouded tiger cat is taking its place in the roster of cat species.

Wolves in California were exterminated in the 1920’s. But wolves have crept in from other states and have formed packs. They have thrived and the current population is said to number 65, according to the San Francisco Chronicle. In fact, the California wolf population is on a strong upward trend.

Wolves, of course, are one of the most controversial of animals whose future is in need of protection. Wolf re-introduction is a hot button issue throughout the American West. Wolves had been driven from abundance to near extinction by 1950. Remnant populations in the Great Lakes region, and the southwest and southeast were all that was left. However, public opinion changed starting in the 1960’s. Wolf re-introduction in Yellowstone National Park began the recovery. Wolf expansion and re-introduction has been happening in the western United States.

The California wolf population now appears to have a stable and growing population. According to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW):

“In California, gray wolves are classified as federally endangered under the US Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species Act, state endangered under the California Endangered Species Act (CESA) and Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the State Wildlife Action Plan. Gray wolves began natural recolonization of California beginning in 2011; the first pack was the Shasta Pack in 2015 (no longer active).”

” Today there are seven confirmed packs in northern California: Antelope pack (Sierra and Nevada counties), Beckwourth pack (Plumas and Sierra counties), Beyem Seyo pack (Plumas County), Harvey pack (Lassen and Shasta counties), Lassen Pack (southern Lassen/northern Plumas counties), Whaleback Pack (Siskiyou County), and Yowlumni pack (Tulare County). There may be an unknown number of individual wolves that have dispersed from packs or adjacent states.”

” The department strives to conserve gray wolf populations for their ecological and intrinsic values and closely monitors our overall wolf population / packs for conservation and research, management and conflict mitigation.”

Phys.Org said

“Conservation organizations emphasized the number of new pups as a huge win for the rebounding species.

The Center for Biological Diversity called it “inspiring”—especially because the wolves made their way back into California and established packs on their own, rather than being reintroduced by wildlife agencies, the organization said in a news release.

It happened in late 2011 when a radio-collared wolf known as OR-7 ventured away from his pack in northeast Oregon and landed in California, the organization said. OR-7’s daughter went on to become a “founding member” of the Yowlumni pack, the state’s southernmost pack in Tulare County.

That pack produced seven of the 30 pups this year, according to Fish and Wildlife’s report.”

But wolves can and do eat livestock and other domestic animals and the battle over wolf populations continues in the United States and abroad. France, for example, estimates wolves kill 15,000 head of livestock annually. Numbers here appear to be lower.

Colorado has been a recent flash point. Wolves were reintroduced there last year. Packs began forming and disperse. But the predators have begun eating livestock and the stat’s strong anti-wolf sentiment remains. Wolves were reintroduced after a ballot measure passed. Pro-wolf voters tended to be urban dwellers or otherwise unattached to livestock based livelihoods. Those residents are staunchly anti-wolf.

Wolf predation can be hard to prove for livestock owners. They often leave little behind. Repayment to owners can be cumbersome and slow.

Predation hits smaller interests harder. But losses can be severe. Two wolves in Idaho panicked a flock of sheep. Almost 150 sheep died during the stampede. As the California wolf population increases it will be important to watch the reaction of livestock interests. Wolf poisoners have struck in Oregon, for example.

Researchers tagged a pregnant porbeagle shark and monitored it for five months. When the tags went silent the researchers realized that the mother-to-be had been eaten. The pregnant porbeagle shark was probably a meal for a great white shark, researchers believe.

The fatal encounter is causing marine biologists to re-think the hunting habits of larger sharks. They may eat each other more than was previously believed.

According to CNN the results of the findings were recently published in the journal Frontiers in Marine Science. Frontiers “explores ocean-based solutions to emerging global challenges.” The incident occurred between 2020 and 2021.

“This is the first documented predation event of a porbeagle shark anywhere in the world,” said lead study author Dr. Brooke Anderson, a marine fisheries biologist in the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, via email.

Porbeagle sharks, which are found across the Atlantic and South Pacific oceans and Mediterranean Sea, can reach a little more than 12 feet (3.7 meters) long and weigh as much as 507 pounds (230 kilograms). The elusive, large sharks can also live between 30 and 65 years old. But female porbeagles can’t reproduce until they reach 13 years old. The females give birth to four pups every one or two years.” The pregnant porbeagle sharks pups were victims of the attack as well.

According to CNN the shark in question ” measuring 7.2 feet (2.2 meters) long, largely remained underwater for five months, cruising along at depths of 328 to 656 feet (100 to 200 meters) at night and 1,969 to 2,625 feet (600 to 800 meters) during the day. The ocean temperature fluctuated between 43.5 and 74.3 degrees Fahrenheit (6.4 and 23.5 degrees Celsius).

But 158 days after the shark was tagged and released, the pop-off tag began to transmit data from the sea southwest of Bermuda, suggesting it had come off the shark and was floating on the ocean’s surface.

For four days in March 2021, the tag registered a constant temperature of 71.6 degrees Fahrenheit (22 degrees Celsius) at a depth ranging from 492 to 1,968 feet (150 to 600 meters). Then the tag floated up.

The team pieced together several factors that indicated the shark had been eaten and the tag excreted by a larger predator that gobbled up the shark, researchers said.

The researchers are now wondering how much shark-to-shark predation impacts the populations of larger sharks Such sharks were thought to be apex predators at little risk of being eaten.

Pregnant porbeagle sharks are not the only sharks under study. Researchers have recently discovered that bull sharks travel as far as 1,000 miles up the Mississippi River. Greenland sharks are also study subjects because they have adapted to Arctic waters and live hundreds of years. New types of sharks are still being discovered, including a new ghost shark.

The Indian government’s ambitious plan to reintroduce cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) into suitable Indian habitat has faced many challenges. But the latest Project Cheetah setback may doom the project.

Javan, the projects only free ranging cat has been found dead, possibly from suspected drowning. Since cheetahs rarely drown the actual cause of death is still under investigation.

The death of the cat throws the project into confusion and may be the final Project Cheetah setback.

As envisioned the plan involved transplanting cheetahs from Namibia to India. The transplanted cats were to be acclimated to life in India and then released. But many of the transplanted cats have died. The others are in captive isolation and may not be released into the wild.

India has had a number of conservation successes, including Project Tiger, which helped bring the regal cat back from the brink of extinction. The potential failure of Project Cheetah has brought out critical response.

“Dr Ravi Chellam, a wildlife biologist and conservation scientist, believes that India’s cheetah endeavour has reached a conservation dead end, with little hope for revival.

When asked if the multimillion dollar cheetah project could be salvaged, Chellam’s response was blunt: “Not really, because we’ve put the cart before the horse.”

“We should have first prepared a sufficient extent of suitable habitat and then brought the cats. Instead, the cats have been here in India for nearly two years, and we are still preparing small fragments of habitat, fencing these areas, and focusing on captive breeding,” he said.

The longer the surviving cats remain in captivity the less hope for successful reintroduction, some experts say.

The deceased cat was named Pavan and his life and death echoes that of P-22. P-22 was the famous Los Angeles mountain lion (Puma concolor) whose exploits pushed development of the Liberty Canyon overcrossing. He succumbed to old age, chronic disease and the results of a car strike. He was one of over 100 of the big cats

studied by the National Park Service (NPS) in the Sant Monica Mountains,

“Dr Laurie Marker, one of the world’s foremost cheetah experts, said the recent death marks a significant setback.

“[Pavan’s death is] very sad. He had been out for nearly two years, showing how well wild cheetahs can live,” Marker told This Week in Asia.

“Reintroduction is a very, very hard process. We need many cheetahs to re-establish an extinct population. The process is not easy. We will celebrate Pavan’s life for helping his species regain territory in India. I ask all of India to honour him and what he stands for,” Marker said.” Marker is executive director of theCheetah Conservation Fund.

The Project Cheetah setback has to be viewed against the risks facing cheetahs world wide. There are about 7,000 thought to be alive now, the majority in Africa. Asiatic cheetahs survive in Iran in a complex political situation. They may number as few as 30 and as many as 100. The Iranian Cheetah Society is seeking to protect the surviving cheetahs in that region.

Although the African lion population is estimated at 25,000 individuals, increasing habitat fragmentation is putting the future of Panthera leo in serious risk .Researchers at Oxford University have completed a recent continent wide survey that shows the cats are at serious risk from the fragmentation of populations

They are therefore facing some of the same threats as jaguars (Panthera onca) tigers (Panthera tigris) cougars (Puma concolor) and Gir lions (a subspecies of Panthera leo) in India . Potentially, some of the same strategies that seem to be aiding these big cats can be used to help protect the African lion population

“The study built on extensive lion monitoring projects which WildCRU has playevd a major role in for decades to map the current state of lion populations across Africa. Thise revealed that whilst the total population of wild lions in Africa may be estimated art between 20,000 and 25,000 individuals, many of these live within small, fragmented populations at risk of disappearing. For instance, of the 25 countries where African lions remain, nearly half of these nations have fewer than 250 individuals, with eight countries having only a single wild lion population. Furthermore, less than half of the 62 known wild African lion populations have over 100 lions.

However, the vulnerability of different lion populations cannot be assessed simply through their size.  For each population, the researchers identified ecological and socio-political factors that may influence their survival. Smaller lion populations or higher densities of people and livestock, for example, would contribute to higher ecological fragility, while higher levels of corruption or lower GDP per capita would contribute to greater socio-political fragility. These were then integrated into a single overall fragility index.”

WildCru is Oxford’s Wildlife Conservation Research Unit. Professor Amy Dickman is the director.

The study of the African lion population is in line with the results of similar research about other large cats. Habitat fragmentation is a serious risk for many large cats. Cougars in the Santa Monica Mountains, for example, are inbreeding due to habitat fragmentation. The overcrossing in Liberty Canyon is expected to build a wildlife corridor to help ease that problem. Cats and other wildlife will be able to cross over the deadly 101 Freeway. Wildlife corridors help animals cross dangerous areas such as freeways. The liberty Canyon venture is inspiring conservationists in Belize to bridge the gap between jaguar populations. Another tactic is straightforward reintroduction. India, for example has imported cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) from Namibia. The animals are expected to repopulate parts of India from which they were driven at least 70 years ago.

tNone of the methods so far have been a “silver bullet.” But together they are working. In addition, eco-tourism has increased the value of all wildlife, Tourists viewing wildlife pump increasing amounts of money into local economies viewing. Other efforts seek to decrease conflict between humans and wildlife. One example is beekeeping and snow leopards. Convincing locals to keep bees rather than livestock can give the locals a reliable source of income. It also reduces conflict with the cats over predation.